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ENV510 Landscape Ecology and GIS
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Landscape ecology terminology has been modified from Forman and Godron, 1986; Forman, 1995; and Elkie et al, 1999.
GIS terminology has been adapted from Burrough and McDonnell, 1998; DeMers, 1997
Accuracy - conformance to a recognisable standard. The degree to which an estimated value differs from the true value
Algorithm - a set of rules for solving a problem
Anthropogenic - of or relating to the study of the origins and development of human beings
Application - a task addressed by a computer system
Arc - a complex line connecting a sequence of coordinate points - also known as a chain or string
Area - a fundamental unit of geographic information which is a measure of a particular extent of the earths surface
Area metrics - measures of area eg Class area, Landscape area
Area weighted mean patch fractal dimension - a measure of shape complexity adjusted for patch size
Area weighted mean shape index - a measure of shape complexity adjusted for shape size
Aspect - the azimuthal direction of surface features
Association - spatial relationship that exists between different elements of the earth that occur at the same locations
Attribute - non-graphic descriptors of point, line and area entities in a GIS
Attribute error - incorrect or missing attributes
Attrition - the act of wearing down by constant abuse
Autocorrelation - statistical concept expressing the degree to which the value of an attribute at spatially adjacent points varies with distance or time separating the observations
Azimuthal projections - a family of map projections resulting from conceptually transferring the earths coordinates onto a flat surface placed perpendicular to the sphere
Benchmark - test to evaluate the capabilities of a computer system in terms of customer requirements
Biota - the flora and fauna of a region
Biodiversity - the variety of life forms especially number of species but including number of ecosystem types and genetic variation within species
Boolean operators - operators based on logic which are used to query 2 or more sets of data - they allow inclusion, exclusion, intersection and differences in the data to be determined
Boundary - a zone composed of the edges of adjacent ecosystems
Broad scale - referring to a large area where the ratio of map length to true length is small. Opposite of fine scale
Buffering - the process of creating areas of calculated distance from a point, line or area object
Cadastral - a map showing the boundaries of the sub division of land for the purpose of describing and recording ownership and taxation
Cadastre - involves interests in land ownership and management
Cartesian coordinate system - a mathematical construct defined by an origin and a unit of distance in the X and Y direction from that origin
Cartographic - relating to the tools and techniques of surveying land surfaces for the purposes of making maps, or the graphic tools and techniques used to produce maps.
Cartography - the art and science of drawing charts and maps
CD-ROM - a compact disk used as a 'Read Only Memory' devise
Cell - the basic element of spatial information in the raster/grid description of spatial entities
Character - an alphabetical, numerical or special graphic symbol that is treated as a single unit of data
Class area - sum of areas of all patches belonging to a given class
Classification - the procedure of assigning the same or similar attribute types into groups or classes
Clustered - spatial arrangement of objects where they occur in groups located close to one another, leaving large empty spaces between
Command - an instruction sent from the keyboard or other control device to execute a computer program
Community - all the interacting populations of various living organisms in a particular area
Complexity - a complicated arrangement of interrelated parts
Composition - the factors of parts that got to make up something also the way in which factors make up the whole
Conceptual model - an abstraction, representation and ordering of phenomena using the mind
Configuration - the location and juxtaposition of landscape elements
Conflation - the computational equivalent of stretching a map until its internal components can be rectified - see also rubber sheeting
Connectivity - LE - a measure of how connected or spatially continuous a corridor or matrix is; GIS - the linking of different spatial, mostly linear units into complex chains
Contagion - measure of contact or close association between patches
Contiguity measures - tools which identify adjacent features (polygons or arcs, a measrue that is ocncerned with relative positions rather than exact locations
Contiguous - adjacent spatial units touching to form an unbroken chain or surface
Continuous - data that occur everywhere on the surface of the earth
Continuous surface - any statistical surface whose values occur at an infinite number of locations
Continuum - gradual change in species composition along an environmental gradient
Contour - a line connecting points of equal elevation
Contrasted weighted edge - the sum of patch perimeter segment lengths multiplied by their corresponding contrast weights divided by total patch perimeter
Control points - any points on a map for which the geographic coordinates are well known and reasonably accurate
Core area metrics - measures that calculate the core area present within a patch or patches eg Core area density, Mean core area, Core area standard deviation, Core area density, and Total core area index
Core area density - a measure of the relative number of disjunct core patches relative to the landscape area
Core area standard deviation - the standard deviation of disjunct core areas
Corridor - a narrow strip of land that differs from the matrix on either side
Coverage - a single thematic map in a multi-map GIS database - also known as a data layer or an overlay
Currency - the level to which data is kept up to date
Dangling node - a node located at the end of an undershoot
Data dictionary - detailed description of the data contents of a database with particular attention being paid to explanations of categories
Data model - an abstraction and representation of real world phenomena according to a formalised conceptual schema which is usually implemented using the geographical primitives of points, lines and polygons or discretised continuous fields
Data structure - the organisation of data in ways suitable for computer storage and manipulation
Data types - the classification of different data according to their characteristics
Database - a collection of many files collectively associated with a single general category
Database structures - a set of approaches for organising large collections of computer files commonly relating to a single major subject - they enable storage, editing, searching and retrieval of files or individual pieces of data within the files
Database Management System (DBMS) - a set of computer programs for organising the information in the database. A DBMS can contain routines for data input, verification, storage, retrieval and combination
DEM - see digital elevation model
Digital - the representation of data in discrete, quantised units or digits
Digital Elevation Model - a quantitative model of part of the earths surface in digital form - also a digital terrain model (DTM)
Digitise - to encode map coordinates in digital form
Digitiser - a devise for entering the spatial coordinates of mapped features from a map to the computer
Discrete - data that only occur in selected places on the earths surface
Dissection - to cut into small pieces or to take apart
Disturbance - an event that causes a significant change from the normal pattern in an ecological system
Disturbance patch - an area that has been disturbed within a matrix
Diversity - the number and variety of species present in an area and their spatial distribution.
Diversity and interspersion metrics - measures that investigate the variety and spatial distribution of patches eg Mean nearest neighbour, Interspersion Juxtaposition Index, Mean proximity index, Shannon's diversity index and Shannon's evenness index
Easting - a measurement of distance east of a preselected standard meridian
Ecoline - is a term used at the local level to describe a natural or human-made corridor
Ecology - the scientific study of the relationship between organisms and their environment
Ecosystem - all organisms in a given place in interaction with their non-living environment.
Edge - an outer band of a patch that has an environment significantly different from the interior of the patch
Edge density - amount of edge relative to the landscape area
Edge effect - a distinctive species composition or relative abundance in the outer band of a patch
Edge matching - the process of aligning the edges of two or more documents
Edge metrics - measures that calculate the amount of edge present in a landscape or around patches eg Total edge, Edge density, Mean patch edge and Contrasted weighted edge
Edge species - species found primarily near the perimeter of a landscape element
Edit - to remove errors from or modify a computer file or map
Element - a fundamental geographical unit of information eg a point, line, area or pixel - also known as an 'entity'
Ellipsoid - a surface of which all the plane sections are ellipses or circles
Endogenous disturbance - disturbance originating from internal or natural processes
Entities - distinct units of real world phenomenon
Entity error - error of position for cartographic objects
Error - a difference between the approximate or observed value and the actual or true value of a quantity
Evapotranspiration - the process in which rain water evaporates from trees and returns to the atmosphere.
Evenness - measure of spatial distribution or abundance
Exogenous disturbance - disturbance due to external influences such as anthroprogenic activity
Feedback - a loop in which one component affects a second component that in turn affects the first component
Field - a set of records in a database containing information or a type or class of data
File - a collection of related information in a computer that can be accessed by a unique name
Filter - a matrix of numbers used to modify the grid cell or pixel values of the original through a variety of mathematical procedures (used in raster GIS and digital image processing)
Fine scale - referring to a small area where the ratio of map length to true length is large. Opposite of broad scale.
Format - the way data are arranged for transmission between computers
Fractal - a object having a fractional dimension, one that has variation that is self-similar at all scales, in which the final level of detail is never reached and never can be reached by increasing the scale at which observations are made
Fractal dimension - a measure of complexity (2 times the logarithm of patch perimeter divided by the logarithm of patch area)
Fragmentation - the breaking up of habitat, ecosystem or land use types into smaller parcels (one of several processes in land transformation)
Function - the flow of mineral nutrients, water, energy or species or the operation of landscape processes
Gene flow - the mixing of genes through interbreeding
Generalisation - the process of reducing detail on a map as a consequence of reducing the map scale
Geocoding - the activity of defining the position of geographical objects relative to a standard reference grid.
Geographical data - data that record the location and value characterising the phenomenon
Geographical data model - formalised schema for representing data which has both location and characteristic
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) - a set of computer tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular purpose
Geoline - is a term used at the continental level to describe corridors or trajectories along which biota energy and nutrients flow
Geomorphology - study of the forms of the land surface ad the processes producing them and the study of the underlying rock or paten materials and the landforms present which were formed in geological time
Georeference - to establish the relationship between page co-ordinates on a planar map and known real-world co-ordinates.
GPS (Global Positioning System) - a set of satellites in geostationary earth orbits used to help determine geographic location anywhere on the earth by means of portable electronic receivers
Gradient - a gradual change with distance
Grid - a set of regularly spaced sample points or a tessellation by squares
Grid map - a map in which the information is carried in the form of regular squares - also called raster
Habitat - the ecosystem where a species lives or the conditions within that ecosystem
Hardware - the physical components of a GIS (eg computer, plotters, printers, VDU etc)
Heterogeneity - the amount of diversity within a selected area - opposite of homogeneity
Heterogeneous - consists of dissimilar constituents
Heterozygosity - cell, plant or animal with dissimilar alleles (1 dominant and 1 recessive gene)
Hierarchical database structure - computer database structure employing parent/child or one to many relationships that require direct linkages among items for a search to be successful or a method of arranging computer files so that the units of data storage are connected by a hierarchically defined pathway
Hierarchy - a sequence of sets composed of smaller sets
Home range - area around an animals home that is used for feeding and other daily activities
Homogeneity - the degree to which attributes in a region are similar - opposite of heterogeneity
Homogeneous - having all parts identical to each other Illumination - the effect of shinning a light onto a 3-dimensional surface
Illumination - the effect of shining a light onto a 3 dimensional surface to produce a shaded relief image
Indexed files - files of data records in which pointes based on a particular ordering system such as alphabetic are used to quicken accessing and searching instructions
Input - the data entered into a computer system
Input device - a hardware component for data entry
Instability - A state in which a small environmental change is sufficient to divert a system out of equilibrium, its regime of oscillation around a central position
Interpolation - the estimation of values of an attribute at unsampled points from measurements made at surrounding sites
Intersection - the crossing of lines or polygons to form new units
Interspersion - the level of spatial intermingling that takes place within a community or between patches of the same type
Interspersion Juxtaposition index - a measure of patch adjacency
Interior species - species located primarily away from the perimeter of a landscape element.
Intervisibility - a cumulative operation for looking at the areas that can be seen from target locations
Island biogeography Theory - theory explaining the number of species on islands as related to an islands area, isolation and age, as caused by the balance between colonisation and extinction Isolated system - a system that has no exchange of energy or matter with its surrounding environment
Join - to connect two or more separately digitised maps
Keyboard - the device used for typing information into the computer
Kriging - an exact interpolation routine that depends on the probabilistic nature of surface changes with distance
Landform - a geomorphic feature of the earths surface
Land Information Systems - subset of GIS that pay specific attention to land related data
LANDSAT - a series of earth resource scanning satellites launched by the USA
Landscape - a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that are repeated in similar form throughout.Landscapes vary in size.
Landscape area - sum of areas of all patches in the landscape
Landscape change - an alteration in the structure and function of the ecological mosaic over time
Landscape ecology - the study of the structure, function and change in a heterogeneous land area composed of interacting ecosystems
Landscape element - the basic relatively homogenous ecological unit, whether natural or human in origin, on land at the scale of the landscape
Landscape function - the flows of energy, materials and species (processes) among the component ecosystems
Landscape structure - the distribution of energy, materials and species in relation to the sizes, shapes, numbers, kinds and configurations of landscape elements or ecosystems
Landscape transformation - landscape in which the configuration is changing from one type to another
Large scale - similar to broad scale
Latitude - angular measurement north and south of the equator
Layer - a logical separation of mapped information according to a theme
Line - one of the basic geographical primitives defined by at least two pairs of XY coordinates
Lineage - the history of a data set
Line corridor - a narrow band essentially dominated throughout by edge species
Location-allocation - a group of models designed to determine the best locations for activities in geographic space and to assign a portion of geographic space to existing facilities based on demand and location
Logical consistency - how well logical relations among data elements are maintained
Longitude - angular measurement east and west from the prime meridian
Managed landscape - a landscape such as a rangeland or forest where native species are harvested
Map - a hand drawn or printed document describing the spatial distribution of geographic features in terms of a recognisable and agreed symbolism
Map projection - the basic system of coordinates used to describe the spatial distribution of elements in a GIS
Matrix - the most extensive and most connected landscape element type present, which plays the dominant role in, landscape functioning. Also a landscape element surrounding a patch.
Maximum likelihood - a method embodying probability theory for fitting a mathematical model to a set of data
Mean core area - the average size of disjunct core patches
Mean nearest neighbour - a measure of patch isolation
Mean patch edge - average amount of edge per patch
Mean patch fractal dimension - a measure of shape complexity
Mean patch size - measure of the average size of patches
Mean perimeter-area ratio - a measure of shape complexity
Mean proximity index - a measure of the degree of isolation and fragmentation
Mean shape index - a measure of shape complexity
Median patch size - the middle patch size or the 50th percentile
Mental Models - a persons perceptions of the world
Menu - a list of available options displayed on the computer screen that the user can choose from by using the keyboard or a devise such as a mouse
Mercator projections - conceptual map projections introduced specifically for nautical navigation
Meridians - lines of longitude drawn north and south on the globe and converging at the poles
Metadata - data about data, an overall description of data in the database
Metapopulation - a population consisting of a spatially-separate subpopulations that are connected by the dispersal of individuals
Microclimate - the climate of a small area such as within vegetation
Migration - a cyclic movement of animals between separated areas that are used during different seasons
Model - a simplified verbal, graphic or mathematical description used to help understand a complex object; GIS - a representation of attributes or features of the earths surface in a digital database
Module - a separate and distinct piece of hardware or software that can be connected with other modules to form a system
Mosaic - a pattern made up of different small componenets
Mosaicing - the practise of stitching small images together to form a larger image
Mouse - a hand steered device for entering data or commands to the computer
Multispectral scanner - a devise for capturing an image of an object obtained simultaneously in a number of discrete spectral bands
Multivariate analysis - methods that concurrently analyse many factors, plus the relationships among the factors
Natural landscape - an area where human effects if present, are not ecologically significant to the landscape as a whole
Nearest neighbour - the closest patch of similar type
Nearest neighbour analysis - a statistical test to compare the distance between each point object and its nearest neighbour to an average between neighbour distance
Neighbourhood functions - GIS analytical functions that operate on regions of the database within the proximity of some starting point or grid cell
Network - two or more interconnected computer systems for the implementation of specific functions or a set of interconnected lines or arcs
Network database structure - a method of arranging data in a database so that explicit connections and relations are defined by links or pointers of a many-to-many type
Niche - the ecological role of an organism in a community in regard to food and shelter
Node - the point at which arcs (lines, chains, strings) are joined
Noise - irregular variations or error in the data
Northing - a measurement of distance north of a preselected standard starting parallel
Number of patches - a measure of the total number of patches found in the landscape if 'analyse by landscape' is selected or number of patches for each individual class if 'analyse by class' is selected
Object-oriented database structure - the organisation of data within a database defined by a series of predefined objects and their properties and behavioural characteristics
Object-orientated database management system - GIS system based on object-orientated programming methods and demonstrating object inheritance
Output - the results of processing data in a GIS - can be maps, tables, images, and files
Overlay - the process of stacking digital representations of various spatial data on top of each other so that each position in the area covered can be analysed in terms of these data
Overshoot - an arc that extends beyond the arc with which it was meant to connect
Package - a set of computer programs that can be used for a particular generalised class of applications
Patch - a nonlinear surface area differing in appearance from its surroundings
Patch density and size metrics - measures that calculate the density and size of patches eg Number of patches, Mean patch size, Median patch size, Patch size standard deviation, and Patch size coefficient of variance
Patch size coefficient of variance - the coefficient of variation of patches
Patch size standard deviation - the standard deviation of patch areas
Patch theory - a theory relating to the view of landscapes as being made up of a hierarchy of patches
Patchiness - the density of patches or the fineness of the mosaic
Pattern - a repeated design or configuration of elements; the regular arrangement of objects
Perforation - to be made up of a series of holes
Performance - the degree to which a device or system fulfils its specifications
Persistence - a measure of stability, referring to the time period during which a certain characteristic continues to be present at a given level
Photogrammetry - a series of techniques for measuring position and altitude from aerial photographs or images using a stereoscope or stereoplotter
Pixel - a picture element, smallest unit of information in a grid cell map or scanner image
Plate tectonics - the study of the movement of huge rock shields that underlie the earth's surface
Point-in-polygon - the process of overlaying a point coverage with a polygon coverage to determine which polygons contain which points
Polygon - a multi-sided figure representing an area on a map
Polygon overlay and intersection - the creation of new polygons (entities) by the process of overlaying and intersecting the boundaries from two or more vector representation of area entities
Population - a group of individuals of the same species located in a particular time and place. The individuals regularly exchange genes through reproduction.
Porosity - the measure of the density of patches in a landscape matrix
Precision - degree of accuracy of a numerical representation
Predation - the act of preying upon, a mode of life practised by certain animals in which food is primarily obtained by the killing and consuming of other animals
Primary key - a set of attributes in a relation database that are designed as the primary search criteria for the database
Probability - the chance of an event or occurrence
Program - a set of instructions directing the computer to perform a task
Projection - see map projection
Proximity - the closeness of one item to another
Puck - a hand held device for entering data from the digitiser which usually has a window with accurately engraved cross hairs and several buttons for entering associated data
Quality - an essential or distinctive characteristic or property of a thing often relating to the standard of excellence
Raster - a regular grid of cells covering an area
Raster data structure - a database containing all mapped spatial information in the form of regular grid cells
Raster map - a map encoded in the form of a regular array of cells
Rasterisation - the process of converting an image of lines and polygons from vector representation to a grided representation
Raster to vector conversion - see vectorisation
Recolonisation - to re establish a colony
Record - a set of attributes relating to a geographical entity
Redundancy - the inclusion of data in a database that contribute little to the information content
Regeneration - to under go regrowth or renewal
Region - a set of loci or points having a certain value of an attribute in common
Relictual - a landscape element in the process of diminishing
Relations - relationships between entities and attributes in a database
Relational database structure - a method of structuring data in the form of sets of records or tuples so that relations between different entities and attributes can be used for data access and transformation
Remnant patch - an area remaining from a former large landscape element and now surrounded by disturbed area
Remote sensing (RS) - the observation of objects or groups of objects, normally at a distance, most often with the use of some form of mechanical or electronic device
Resampling - techniques for transforming a raster image from one particular scale and projection to another
Resolution - the degree to which small objects are distinguishable; the smallest spacing between two displayed or processed elements, the smallest feature that can be mapped or sampled
Salination - the process whereby soluble salts accumulate in the soil
Salinity - to have a high concentration of salt
Sampling - the technique of obtaining a series of measurements to obtain a satisfactory representation of the real world phenomenon being studied
Scale - the level of spatial resolution perceived or considered. The ratio of length on a map to the true length or size in the real world
Scanner - a device for converting images from maps, photographs or from part of the real world into digital form
Selection - a sorting process involving overproduction of offspring, variability, competition and survival of the fittest offspring
Shannon's diversity index - a measure of relative patch diversity
Shannon's evenness index - a measure of patch distribution and abundance
Shape metrics - measures that investigate patch shape eg Mean perimeter-area ratio, Mean shape index, Area weighted mean shape index, Mean patch fractal dimension and Area weighted mean patch fractal dimension
Shrinkage - to contract to a smaller volume
Side looking airborne radar (SLAR) - a system mounted at the base of an aircraft that sends out and receives radar signals in a sweeping motion perpendicular to the flight path of the aircraft
Simulation - using the digital model of the landscape in a GIS for studying the possible outcome of various processes expressed in the form of mathematical models
Sink - an area or 'reservoir' that absorbs objects
Sliver polygons - small polygons, often without attributes that result either from digitising the same line twice or following the overlay of two or more coverage
Slope - measure of the amount of rise divided by the amount of horizontal distance travelled
Small scale - similar to fine scale
Smoothing - a set of procedures for removing short-range erratic variation from lines, surfaces and data series
Soil - the top layer of the earths surface where rocks have been broken down unto relatively small particles through biological, chemical and physical processes
Source - an area or 'reservoir' that gives off objects
Spatial - anything dealing with the concept of space - primarily dealing with the distribution of things on the earths surface
Spatial arrangement - the placement, ordering, concentration, connectedness or dispersion of multiple objects within a confined geographic space
Spatial data model - see geographic data model
Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) - a computer system that can be used to make recommendations on solutions to particular problems
Species area curve - the relationship plotted between increasing area and the number of species
Species composition - the particular species present eg in a community
Species diversity - the number and the relative abundance of species
Species dynamics - changes in a community due to colonisation, extinction and population size fluctuation
Species source - an area from which species come in colonisation
Spheroid - a geometric representation of the shape of the earth
Software - general name for computer programs and programming languages
Stability - the condition of a system characterised by a variation curve with a general tendency and a large or small regular oscillation
Stepping stone - a spot that is colonised by species that can be used for the movement of species between landscape elements
Stream corridor - a band of vegetation bordering a stream or river
Strip corridor - a wide band with a central interior environment that contains an abundance of interior species
Structured Query language (SQL) - a standard language for interrogating and managing relational databases
Subsurface flow - the more or less horizontal movement of water and dissolved substances beneath the soil surface
Suburban landscape - a town or country area with a heterogeneous patchy mixture of residential areas, commercial centres, cropland, managed vegetation and natural areas
Succession - a directional species replacement process often leading through a series of recognisable stages to a climax community
Supersaturation - to add to beyond the point of satuation
Surface runoff - the movement of water over a soil surface
Sustainability - the condition of maintaining ecological integrity and basic human needs over human generations
Systems analysis - the study of behaviour and interactions among components in a model of a complex system
Tablet - a small digitiser used for interactive work on a graphics workstation
Temporal - of or relating to time
Texture - the visual appearance of a symbol resulting from the spacing and placement of internal markings
Thematic map - a map whose primary purpose is to display the locations of a single attribute or the relationships among several selected attributes
Theodolite - an instrument for taking the heights and distances of objects, or for measuring horizontal and vertical angles in land-surveying
Thiessen polygons - a method of creating polygons or proximal regions around point objects by defining them mathematically, dividing the distance between each point and connecting these distances with straight lines
Tile - a part of the database in a GIS representing a contiguous part of the earths surface
Topographical map - a map showing the surface features of the earths surface
Topological models - a vector data structure that incorporates explicit spatial information about the relative locations of objects in the database - these are necessary for advanced analysis in GIS
Topological space - a map that accurately represents the spatial ordering.
Topology - a term used to refer to the continuity of space and spatial properties, such as connectivity, that are unaffected by continuous distortion
Total core area index - a measure of the amount of core area in the landscape
Total edge - measure of the perimeter of patches
Transect - a set of sampling points along a straight line
Transform - the process of changing the scale, projection and orientation of a mapped image
Transverse projections - a type of Mercator projector
Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) - a vector data structure for representing geographical information that is modelled as a continuous field (usually elevation) which uses tessellated triangles or irregular shape
Tuple - a set of values of attributes pertaining to a given item in a database - also known as a record
Undershoot - an arc that does not extend far enough to connect with another arc - also known as dangling arcs
Union - the joining of two or more data sets together
UNIX - a computer operating system
Unsupervised classification - the process of classifying digital data in remote sensing without the interaction of the user
Urban landscape - a landscape with a densely built up matrix
Variegated landscape - a landscape which has been subject to varying degrees of modification
Vector - the representation of spatial data in a GIS by points, lines and polygons
Vector data structure - a means of coding and storing point, line and areal information in the form of unit of data expressing magnitude, direction and connectivity
Vectorisation - the conversion of point, line and area data from a grid to a vector representation
Vector to raster conversion - see rasterisation
Verification - to make certain of or prove the truth or accuracy of something
Videography - the practice or art of recording images with a video camera
Viewshed - those parts of the landscape that can be seen from a particular point
Windows 95, Windows NT - operating system used with personal computers and workstations
Workstation - a minicomputer or a high level personal computer used for local computations, it is often connected to other computers by a network
Zones - on the UTM grid system the earth is divided into columns 6 degrees of longitude wide. Each of these is called a zone and is numbered from 1 to 60 eastward beginning at the 180th meridian
Zoom - a capability for proportionately enlarging or reducing the scale of a figure or map displayed on a computer screen
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